What if cultural ecosystem services were relational? A research agenda for nature’s contributions to well-being—and human action

Cultural ecosystem services (CES) are central to relational thinking, yet current research rarely treats them as truly relational. This perspective argues for redefining CES as the work that sustains non‑material relationships between people and nature, rather than simply benefits received. The authors propose a feedback cycle linking nature‑based experiences, interest, capability and relationships, each reinforcing the next. They identify five factors shaping relational CES: ecological attributes of place, senses engaged, attention, human companions and their values, and interactions with specific non‑human beings. By shifting CES from a subfield of economic valuation to a foundation for interdisciplinary inquiry, the authors outline a bold agenda for studying how relationships with nature form, persist and shape well‑being.