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Sustainability trade-offs at the nexus of solar energy, agriculture, and biodiversity

Published Article

United States, New York

Publication date: April 22, 2026

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This study uses a mixed‑integer linear programming model to evaluate utility‑scale solar siting in New York State under three scenarios: minimizing cost, prioritizing agricultural preservation, and conserving biodiversity. New York can meet mid‑century goals with 46,216 MWdc, but land‑use trade‑offs emerge; biodiversity‑conscious siting avoids sensitive areas with only a 0.17% cost increase.

Subject Tags

  • Agriculture
  • Biodiversity

Abstract

A rapid transition to renewable energy is necessary for achieving global decarbonization targets, but siting conflicts, particularly beyond the built environment, remain a key barrier to sustainable development. At the same time, climate-induced pressures on biodiversity intensify the socio-ecological trade-offs within the energy-agriculture-biodiversity nexus. Using New York State as a case study, we assess the geographic implications of utility-scale solar energy development under competing land-use priorities. We apply a mixed-integer linear programming (MILP) optimization model to evaluate solar buildout across three distinct scenarios: minimizing cost, prioritizing agricultural preservation, and conserving biodiversity, employing a lexicographic hierarchy to enforce a strict ordering of stakeholder priorities. Results indicate that New York can meet its mid-century decarbonization goals by deploying 46,216 MWdc of solar energy, however, achieving this goal comes with considerable land-use trade-offs. A cost-minimizing scenario disproportionately targets pasture and hay lands (>40,000 ha), nearly half of which overlap with grassland bird habitat and biodiversity writ large. Prioritizing agriculture spares ∼80 % of farmland but creates potential for deforestation of over 41,000 ha. Biodiversity-conscious siting avoids ecologically sensitive areas and increases the annualized total costs by 0.17 %, indicating economic feasibility. Our findings highlight the need for spatially informed, integrative land-use strategies that reconcile climate goals with ecological and agricultural values. By linking geospatial optimization with socio-ecological criteria, this work contributes a transferable framework to inform just and ecologically responsible energy transitions in multifunctional landscapes, offering new insights into how geography can advance sustainable development.

Citation

Gallaher, A., Koch, T., Kalies, E. L., Woodbury, P. B., & Grodsky, S. M. (2026). Sustainability trade-offs at the nexus of solar energy, agriculture, and biodiversity. Geography and Sustainability, 100483.

TNC Authors